Dr. Abdurahman Baadiyow
In the last quarter of the 19th century, extending into the early 20th century, as the European powers extended control in the Horn of Africa, scholars of Islam became leading figures in the organization and leadership of Somali resistance. These scholars saw the defense of Muslim lands against Christian invaders-the Italians, British, French, and Ethiopians-as an Islamic duty. This eventually came to be known as the “Era of the Sheikhs,” as coined by Professor Said Samatar.
The most prominent scholars who took up arms were the leaders of the Darwish movement, Sayyid Mohamed Abdulle Hassan (1856–1920); Sheikh Ahmed Gabyow, head of resistance in Warsheikh and Adale (1844–1933); the leader of the Biyamal resistance, Sheikh Abdi Abiikar Gafle (1852–1922); Sheikh Hassan Barsane (1852–1927); Sheikh Bashir Sheikh Hassan (1905–1945), and Sheikh Ahmed Haji Mahadi, the mentor of Lafole resistance of Italians (1896) among many. A key similarity in most of these scholars is that they were from a nomadic background and had affiliations with the Salihiyah Sufi order, whose worldview greatly influenced their approach to resistance.
Many other scholars, however, supported non-violent resistance, especially among farming communities and urban centers. They aimed to achieve the protection of Islamic traditions and practices, and local self-government through education, discourse, and community building. Their approach was different from the armed mujahideen employed, yet their goals did not differ, and their contributions were invaluable to the general movement of resistance. The armed and peaceful forms of resistance were complementary, representing different faces of the same struggle. Giorgio Sorrentino, the Italian commissioner of Banadir appointed after the 1896 referred to the peaceful scholars: “the religious men are those who make the worst element. They preach religious hatred.” Besides, historian Prof. Lee Cassanelli observed that religious leaders were in the vanguard of anti-colonial resistance in southern Somalia.
The memory of Sheikh Hassan Barsane in southern Somalia made him a leading voice of resistance against Ethiopian encroachment and Italian colonial rule, calling for Jihad to defend Somali territory. Such a Jihad against the two powers really points out how scholars of Islam took up arms to protect their faith and the way of life of Somalis. It was this dual mission of defense of Islamic faith and preservation of Somali identity that set in concrete the sheikh’ resistance during this period. Sheikh Barsane is an anti-colonial leader and mujahid who bitterly fought against both Ethiopian expansionism and Italian imperialism. Though there are very limited historical records about the life and Jihad of Sheikh Hassan Barsane, his legacy remains in the memory of the Somalis. This article tries to take a brief closer look at the life of Sheikh Barsane, his jihad, and resistance against the twin threats of Ethiopian and Italian forces. His legacy has continued to remind the Somalis of the deep linkage between Islam, culture, and politics in their ongoing fight for freedom.
Sheik Hassan Barsane, or also known as Haji Hassan, born in 1853 in the village of Ubadi, located 68 kilometers west of Jowhar in the Hirshabelle state of Somalia. From a young age, Sheikh Barsane displayed an exceptional aptitude for Islamic learning. He memorized the Quran early in his life, a key milestone in Islamic scholarship. His father was a prominent sheikh and Quranic teacher who instilled in him the passion of Islamic learning. Building on this foundation, he pursued further religious studies, focusing on Islamic jurisprudence, theology, and Sufism. As part of his spiritual journey, Sheikh Hassan Barsane traveled to Makkah to perform the Hajj where he spent three years immersing himself in further Islamic studies and spiritual growth. In Makkah, he met Sheikh Mohamed Saleh, the leader of the Salihiyah Sufi order, a more reformist and revivalist branch of Sufism. Sheikh Hassan Barsane’s time in Makkah marked a turning point in his life leading him to adopt the teachings and principles of the Salihiyah order. Upon his return to Somalia, he became one of the key figures responsible for spreading the Salihiyah movement in the region, which promoted reform, moral renewal, and resistance against colonial forces.
The Salihiyah Sufi order gained prominence in Somalia for its active role in resisting colonial powers during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Unlike other Sufi orders, which focused primarily on spiritual practices and peaceful resistance, the Salihiyah integrated their religious mission with a strong commitment to political activism and armed resistance against foreign domination. The order became a central force in many anti-colonial movements. However, the Salihiyah also demonstrated a capacity for peaceful resistance in settled agricultural communities. For instance, Sheikh Mohamed Guuled al-Rashiidi, who established 15 Saliyiah Jama centers along the Shabelle River. This balance between militant and peaceful approaches highlighted the order’s flexibility in confronting colonial oppression.
On the other hand, until the fascist rule in 1923, the Italian direct control was limited primarily to the Banadir region, which encompassed key coastal areas including Mogadishu and its surrounding coastal towns. However, beyond the coast, Italy struggled to assert full authority over the interior regions of Somalia. In the hinterlands, particularly in central and southern Somalia, resistance movements led by Somali leaders like Sheikh Hassan Barsane and other local leaders maintained significant autonomy. These regions were less accessible to the Italians, who faced strong opposition from local communities that refused to submit to foreign rule. Italian rule in Banadir was marked by the imposition of fascist policies since 1923 aimed at exploiting local resources, enforcing their legal system, and suppressing any form of dissent.
Moreover, during Mussolini’s Fascist rule 1923-1941 manifested in brutal methods of governance. The regime used harsh military tactics to suppress any form of resistance or dissent among the Somali population. Forced labor, heavy taxation, and discriminatory laws were imposed, stripping Somalis of political and social rights while consolidating Italian control. Maria Cecchi, a fascist general appointed as governor of Somalia, led a campaign to extend Italian control from the coastal Benadir region into southern Somalia, using brutal tactics to subdue resistance. This expansion aimed to integrate southern Somalia and the two sultanates of Hobyo and Majeerteen who were hitherto under Italian protectorate and indirect Italian rule. Despite these efforts, Somali communities continued to resist, showcasing their resilience against colonial domination. Sheikh Hassan fought on two significant fronts: against the Ethiopian forces in 1905 and later against Italian fascism in 1924. His resistance was marked by his efforts to protect Somali territories from both Ethiopian expansion and Italian colonial dominance.
In 1905, Ras Makonnen, the father of Emperor Haile Selassie, launched a military campaign into the Banadir region as part of Ethiopia’s broader strategy to assert control over coastal areas in the Horn of Africa. This move came at a time when European colonial powers, particularly Italy, were expanding their influence in the region. According to The New York Times, Ras Makonnen’s army, composed of 3,000 men, mostly cavalry, was nearly annihilated, with only 69 soldiers managing to escape and return to Ethiopia. Sheikh Hassan Barsane emerged as a key figure in organizing resistance against the Ethiopian invasion. He rallied a unified force of kinsmen and allies, including units led by his trusted students, Sheikh Abukar and Sheikh Oyaye, who were prepared for battle. Sultan Olol Dinle of Mustahil also played a critical role, providing supplies and support to the resistance forces.
The forces of Sheikh Hassan Barsane engaged in sequential battles with the Ethiopian soldiers at strategic battlefronts such as Galo Karor, Bulo Burti, Yaqbariwein, and El Abdi. This heavy fighting eventually led to Hassan’s troops forcing the Ethiopian invaders out of the Banadir region. This resistance saved Somalia from further intrusion by Ethiopians, and it also helped maintain local self-governance against foreign aggression. Many clans participated in this resistance against the Ethiopian invasion of Banadir, prominent among them were the Gaaljel, the Moobleen, some Abgal sub-clans and the Shidle in its final battles near Balad town. As the Italian historian Robert Hess illustrates, Italy took responsibility for creating a colony in southern Somalia in 1905, the year of Ethiopian invasion. However, it rule was confined to the coastal area called Banadir and did nothing to intervene in its defense against the Ethiopian incursion.
On the other hand, Italy fell under the Fascist regime in 1923 and appointed General Emilio De Vecchi as governor of Somalia. While the British were consolidating their hold over Somaliland, De Vecchi found an excellent opportunity to finally subdue Sheikh Hassan Barsane and achieve the long-cherished dream of establishing ‘La Grande Somala.’ At the time, the Somalis were armed with approximately 16,000 rifles. The policy of disarming was implemented as the initial step in the broader campaign to conquer all territories in southern Somalia. Thus, De Vecchi called upon Sheikh Hassan in 1924 and delivered an ultimatum to lay down his arms and surrender before Italian rule. However, Sheikh Hassan called a meeting with his associates and resolved to send back a letter of defiance addressed to De Vecchi. In his letter, he wrote:
“In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful… I have received your letter and understood its contents, but we cannot obey your orders or enter into a covenant with you. Your government has its laws, and we have ours. We accept no law other than our own—the law of Allah and His Prophet. We are not like other people; none of us has ever served in the Zaptie-colonial forces-never! If you come to our land to fight us, we will resist with all possible means. The world is nearing its end, with only 58 years remaining. We do not wish to remain in this world. It is better to die defending our laws.”
De Vecchi ordered his generals to commit the troops into the most brutal combats and bring Sheikh Hassan, dead or alive. In March 1924, the Italians launched an offensive against Sheikh Hassan. This involved a three-pronged attack: a battalion of 1,000 colonial troops out of Mogadishu, 1,000 from Warsheik, and another 1,000 from Jazira. This was part of the plan that would help encircle the Sheikh Hassan area of influence that stretched from Mahas village in central Somalia to Beledwein in the west and further down to Lego and Balad, near the coast. By this time, Sheikh Hassan had retreated from the Banadir coast, and his alliance with Ethiopia had become defunct when a Christian successor overthrew Muslim Emperor Iyasu and immediately severed relationships with the Somali leaders. But these setbacks did not deter the forces of Sheikh Hassan, who were determined to defend their motherland. Hundreds of Hassan’s fighters came out of Mahaddai to engage in fierce combat against the enemy that was closing in on them. The battle at Biyo Adde between Mahadai and Adale was particularly brutal, with a lot of blood spilled.
The Italians continued their advance and took Wanlawein, followed by the region of Giohar. In Balad, the fort was broken after the united defending clans were defeated by the Italians; it remained in ruins. The resistance of Sheikh Hassan against all odds with continuous aggressive advances by the Italians turned this resistance into a symbol of defiance against colonial aggression. As the war continued, under the relentless pressure of the advancing Italians, the forces of Sheikh Hassan Barsane gradually dwindled. Drawing upon a now-consolidated supply line, capturing more villages, the Italians finally reached Jilyale-the largest stronghold that Hassan had and destroyed his livestock, his treasures, and defeated his warriors. Cornered and desperate, Sheikh Hassan was finally caught, along with his associate Hussein Daqane.
Despite previous Italian orders to execute all prisoners of the campaign, General De Vecchi intervened to save the life of Sheikh Hassan, while his comrades and disciples were executed. Sheikh Hassan was thrown into Mogadishu Central Prison, condemned to life imprisonment, and tortured very severely under the Italian fascist policy. After two years of miserable imprisonment, Sheikh Hassan died in 1926 at the age of 73 years old. His funeral was attended by thousands, and he was buried in a suburb close to the prison. But although he died in captivity, Shaikh Hassan Barsane was celebrated as a martyr for his noble cause, and his struggle found commemoration even in figures such as poet Sheikh Ahmed Gabyow. In 1923, the Sufi leader Baraki united several settlements of the Jama’a in Lower Shabelle and set up headquarters in Barawa. He, too, was captured and killed in 1928. Despite these setbacks, Italian control in the region gradually became more consolidated. The legend of Sheikh Hassan survived to symbolize national resistance against colonial oppression. Somali government commemorated Sheikh Hassan Barsane by naming him a secondary school in Mogadishu.
Finally, the demand for research into southern Somalia’s history of anti-colonial resistance is in high demand, mainly because not much has been written about this area. This area offers several opportunities for scholars, providing a significant insight into Somali resistance against colonialism. It opens a complex and rich narrative of resistance hitherto not done very much, hence a very important contribution toward knowledge about colonial history in the Horn of Africa.
Dr. Abdurahman Baadiyow
Email: abdurahmanba@yahoo.com
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Dr. Abdurahman Baadiyow is a Professor of Modern Islamic History and a Senior Adviser for the Somali President on Peace and Reconciliation.
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