Dr. Abdurahman Baadiyow
To understand the history of spreading Islam in the Horn of Africa region, it is essential to recognize the exceptional work done by the scholars, most of whom belong to two Sufi orders: the Qaderiyah and the Ahmadiyah. The Salihiyah is not an independent order as assumed in the literature but is a sub-order of the Ahmadiyah. I provided an overview of the Qaderiyah in my last article, published in Wardheernews on 25th June 2024. This article provides an overview of the scholars of the Ahmadiyah order founded by Ahmad Ibn Idris Al- Fasi (1760-1837). Its branches in Somalia are Rahmaniyah, Salihiyah, and Dandarawiyah.
Rahmaniyah is well known in southern Somalia. Most written sources stipulate that Sheikh Ali Maye from Marka (d. 1917) introduced the Ahmadiyah order into south Somalia in 1870. However, oral narratives and some unpublished works convey a different reality. They assert that the Ahmadiyah order entered southern Somalia through Maulana Sheikh Abdurahman bin Mahmoud (d. 1874). After acquiring basic Islamic knowledge in Somalia, he traveled to Zabid in Yemen to seek further education, where he resided for several years. During his pilgrimage to Mecca, Abdurahman bin Mahmoud met Sayid Ahmad ibn Idris, who gave him Ijaza. He was appointed to represent the Ahmadiyah order in Somalia after being subjected to intensive spiritual training. Upon his return, Maulana Abdurahman met his first five disciples, known in the history of Rahmaniyah as the “Five Stars.” These five stars are Sheikh Hassan Mo’allim, Sheikh Mahmoud Wais, Sheikh Yahya Addow (Haji Waheliye), Sheikh Muhammad Yusuf, and Sheikh Hassan Barrow. He sent these scholars to different regions and tribes. The famous Sheikh Ali Maye was a disciple of Sheikh Hassan Mo’allim, one of the five stars, who propagated Ahmadiyah teachings and Islamic sciences in his Islamic education center in Marka.
Sheikh Ali Maye sent 44 envoys to multiple regions and tribes to spread the message of Islam and Ahmadiyah. It is known that 16 emissaries were sent to the clans residing in the Middle Shabelle region and the Galguduud area. Some of these emissaries established Islamic educational centers and acted as spiritual leaders of their clans. As a result, a new generation of scholars contributed to Islam’s propagation, society’s reorganization, and anti-colonial movement. Among these prominent scholars were Sheikh Muse Igale Afrah, the grandfather of President Sheikh Sharif; Sheikh Daud Ulusow, Haji Yusuf; Sheikh Ahmad Hilowle, the father of the literary scholar Hussein Sheikh Ahmad (Kadare); and Sheikh Ahmed M. Malin.
The Sudanese Sheikh Muhammad Salah founded Salihiyah. The first to introduce the Salihiyah order to southern Somalia was Sheikh Muhammad Guleed al-Rashidi (d. 1918). Sheikh Muhammad Guleed al-Rashidi settled in the agricultural area of the village of Misra-wein, located 90 km north of Mogadishu near the Town of Jawhar. Within a short period, Salihiyah founded more than 15 communities that emerged along the Shabelle River’s banks. These communities implemented strict Islamic rules, such as mandatory attendance at congregational prayers and participation in the recitation of liturgical texts. Women were also required to wear modest Islamic dress. Another important rule was the obligation for all individuals to participate in social solidarity programs, donate to charitable organizations, and adhere to values and customs aligned with Islamic law. Each community had a mosque, a Qur’anic school, and a preacher responsible for resolving social issues, mediating tribal reconciliations, and providing Islamic education. In the far south, near Banadir, Sheikh Ali Nairobi (d. 1920) actively propagated the Salihiyah order.
Notable Salihiyah order Sheikhs known for their opposition to Italian colonialism in southern Somalia include Sheikh Abdi Abikar Gafle (1852-1922) and Sheikh Hassan Barsane (1853-1928). After the Lafoole incident in 1896, where 38 Zapitié troops and 13 Italians were killed, Sheikh Gafle became a prominent leader and fighter against the Italians in the Bimal resistance. Sheikh Gafle allied with Sayid Mohamad Abdulla Hassan to form a united front against colonialism and continued his armed struggle until the unfortunate end of his resistance in 1908. Another leader, Sheikh Hassan Barsane, opposed Italian expansion policies in 1924 and refused to submit to their dominance. The Italian Fascist governor Mario De Vecchi estimated that Somalis possessed more than 16,000 automatic rifles, six times the number allowed for local defence forces. The Italian military governor was dissatisfied with this situation, so De Vecchi ordered the surrender of all automatic rifles. While most tribes complied, Sheikh Hassan Barsane confronted the Italian governor.
The Italian authorities interpreted Sheikh Hassan’s stance as challenging their authority. However, he openly defended his absolute rejection of Italian laws and his commitment to Islamic law in a letter addressed to the Italians. After several bloody confrontations, Sheikh Hassan Barsane was captured in April 1924 and later martyred in Mogadishu prison. Sheikh Hassan Barsane is remembered for leading the last armed resistance against Italian colonialism in the Banadir region. It is worth noting that the anti-colonial resistance in Banadir lacked unifying leaders and mainly consisted of scattered pockets of resistance organized by various tribes and local sheikhs.
In a parallel development, Sayid Muhammad Abdulle Hassan (1856-1921) introduced the Salihiyah order in northern Somalia in 1895. He traveled to Mecca for pilgrimage and returned a different person to Somalia after joining the Salihiyah order under Sheikh Muhammad Salah (1853-1917), a disciple of Ahmad ibn Idris al-Fasi. Sayid Muhammad considered himself the sole legitimate representative of the Salihiyah order in Somalia. He began his activities in Berbera by criticizing the Qaderiyah order, British colonialism, Ethiopians, and Christian missionary activities. Following clashes with Qaderiyah scholars and British authorities, he left Berbera and established a center in Qoryo-Wayne among the Dhulbahante clan, his maternal uncles. He recruited new followers, formed a strong army, resolved tribal disputes, and launched a series of fierce wars against the British, Italians, and Ethiopians for over 20 years. However, his Darawish movement garnered significant academic attention for posing a threat to colonial powers, symbolizing Somalia’s struggle against colonialism, and because of his eloquent poems.
The Darawish movement was an Islamist movement based on the Salihiyah Sufi order under the charismatic leader of Sayid Mohamed Abdulle Hassan. It was not a nationalist movement, as was assumed in later periods. It is so because nationalism was developed in Europe and, as a European doctrine, extended its influence on its colonies. As part of that trend, Somali nationalism was introduced to Somalia after the Second World War and the establishment of the Somali Youth Club in 1943. Indeed, the Darwish movement is a Jihadi Movement against European colonialism and Ethiopia defending Islam and Somali Muslims from the non-believer’s rule as an Islamic obligation. These anti-colonial movements were a phenomenon in all Muslim countries as the first reaction to colonialism in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Sayyid Muhammad al-Dandrawi, another branch of Ahmadiyah, founded Ahmadiyah/ Dandrawiyah. This order had less spread in Somalia, where its presence was limited to specific cities in the northern region of Somalia. Sayid Adan Ahmed brought it to the north of Somalia, establishing its first center in Haahi near the town of Oodweyne in the north. Sayyid Adam Ahmed moved to Sheikh, where he established another center and made the city the headquarters of his order. Sayyid Adan Ahmed and many of his disciples spread Islam in neighboring communities, establishing connections with similar orders in Egypt, Zanzibar, and Syria.
The Dandrawiyah tariqa became known for its good relations with the British authorities, allowing for the opening of the first modern school in Sheikh in 1943. Most areas in British Somaliland took an opposing stance towards such schools. This school significantly impacted the Dandrawiyah order, weakening its influence and making the children of its early disciples part of the new elite in Somali politics. For example, the first civil engineer in British Somaliland, Ali Sheikh, was the son of the Dandrawiyah leader Sheikh Mohamad Hussein. Among the well-known followers was Ahmed Sheikh Mohamed Obsiye, who served as the speaker of the Somali parliament between 1964 and 1966, and many other prominent politicians and administrators.
In conclusion, this article highlighted a brief historical background of the Ahmadiyah Order in Somalia and its three branches: Rahmaniyah, Salihiyah, and Dandarawiyah. The article attempted to correct the misconception of the founder of Rahmaniyah related that Sheikh Ali Maye was the founder. Instead, It illuminated that Sheikh Abdirahman Mohamud was the founder of Rahmaniyah in Somalia. Finally, the misconception corrected here is the nature of the Darawish Movement. Was it a nationalist movement using Islam as its resistance slogan, or was it an Islamist movement like the anti-colonial movements in the Muslim world before existed the introduction of nationalism? This article suggests that the Darawish movement was an Islamist movement, and the ideology of nationalism was reached Somalia afterwards.
Dr. Abdurahman Baadiyow
Email: [email protected]
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Dr. Abdurahman Baadiyow is a Professor of Modern Islamic History and a Senior Adviser for the Somali President on Peace and Reconciliation.
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